Home / Evolution & Extinction / The Mass Extinction at the End of the Permian

Andrew Alden, About.com Guide: The Permian-Triassic Extinction.

AllExperts: Permian-Triassic extinction event.

Bob Beale, ABC Science Online (discoverynews): Mutant Pollen Clue To Ancient Fallout.

Luann Becker, University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB): Research Papers PDF files. Scientific paper discussing end-Permian research.

! G. Benedix (2007): Phenomena and causes of the end-Permian biotic crisis. In PDF.

! Michael Benton, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol: Wipeout. The end-Permian crisis. New Scientist vol 178 issue 2392 - 26 April 2003, page 38. See also:
Reprints by Michael J. Benton (PDF files).

Robert A. Berner (2002): Examination of hypotheses for the Permo-Triassic boundary extinction by carbon cycle modeling. PDF file, PNAS, 99: 4172-4177. See also here.

Samuel A. Bowring, Douglas H. Erwin, and Yukio Isozaki: The tempo of mass extinction and recovery: The end-Permian example. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA (PNAS, The National Academy of Sciences). 1999, 96(16): 8827-8828.

Helen Briggs, BBC News (2005): Palaeozoic World, Permian Extinction Event.

The Palaeobiology and Biodiversity Research Group, Dept. of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol: Permo-Triassic Extinction.

! The palaeofiles. Articles here have all been prepared by students on the palaeobiology programmes in Bristol:
The end-Permian mass extinction.

Robert Roy Britt (2006): Giant Crater Found: Tied to Worst Mass Extinction Ever. See also here (Science Daily).

Andrew M. Bush, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT: Book review, Science 31 March 2006: Vol. 311. no. 5769, pp. 1868 - 1869: Crime Scene Investigation--Permian. concerning "Extinction - How Life on Earth Nearly Ended 250 Million Years Ago", by Douglas H. Erwin Princeton University Press, 2006; 306 pp.

CARTAGE (Central Array of Relayed Transaction for the Advance of General Education), Lebanon: CARTAGE is a knowledge database and a school network. Paleobotany. Some articles. Go to: Is there a floral break in the Permian? Now via wayback machine.

B. Cascales-Miñana and C.J. Cleal (2011): Plant fossil record and survival analyses. Abstract, Lethaia.

N.M. Chumakov and M.A. Zharkov (2003): Climate during the Permian-Triassic biosphere reorganizations. Article 2. Climate of the Late Permian and Early Triassic: general inferences. PDF file, Stratigraphy and Geological Correlation, 11: 361-375. Translated from Stratigrafiya. Geologicheskaya Korrelyatsiya, 11: 55-70. See also:
N.M. Chumakov and M.A. Zharkov (2002): Climate during Permian-Triassic Biosphere Reorganizations, Article 1: Climate of the Early Permian. See also:
M.A. Zharkov and N.M. Chumakov (2001): (web-site hosted by the Laboratory of Arthropods, Palaeontological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow): Paleogeography and Sedimentation Settings during Permian-Triassic Reorganizations in Biosphere.

Clare Davies et al. (2010): Deposition in the Kuznetsk Basin, Siberia: Insights into the Permian-Triassic transition and the Mesozoic evolution of Central Asia. PDF file, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 295: 307-322.

Deutschlandfunk (a German radio station): An Sauerstoffmangel eingegangen. Easy to understand information about the Permian/Triassic mass extinction aftermath and thin air (with statements of Robert Berner, Robert Dudley, Raymond Huey, Peter Ward). In German. You can also listen to this article ("Audio on demand"). See also Gasping for Air in the Permian (Science magazine, April 2005).

! William A. DiMichele et al. (2008): The so-called "Paleophytic-Mesophytic" transition in equatorial Pangea. Multiple biomes and vegetational tracking of climate change through geological time. PDF file, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 268: 152-163. See also here (abstract).

! W.A. DiMichele et al. (2009): Climate and vegetational regime shifts in the late Paleozoic ice age earth. PDF file, Geobiology, 7: 200-226.

DiMichele, William A.: EVOLUTIONARY AND PALEOECOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS OF TERRESTRIAL FLORAL CHANGES IN THE LATE PALEOZOIC TROPICS. 1999 GSA Annual Meeting, Denver, Colorado; The Geological Society of America (GSA).

Dan Dorritie, Berkeley Echo Lake Camp: Killer in our midst. Go to: Early Triassic Aftermath 1 and Early Triassic Aftermath 2.

Earth System Processes - Global Meeting (June 24-28, 2001) Edinburgh: Session No. T7 Tuesday, June 26, 2001; Global Change in the Late Paleozoic. Abstracts.

! D.H. Erwin (Rubey Colloquium Paper): Impact at the Permo-Triassic Boundary: A Critical Evaluation. PDF file, ASTROBIOLOGY, Volume 3, Number 1, 2003.

C.B. Foster and S.A. Afonin: Abnormal pollen grains: an outcome of deteriorating atmospheric conditions around the Permian-Triassic boundary. Abstract, Journal of the Geological Society, 162(4): 653-659; 2005.

Thomas Galfetti et al. (2007): Smithian-Spathian boundary event: Evidence for global climatic change in the wake of the end-Permian biotic crisis. PDF file, Geology, 35: 291-294. See also here (abstract).

Robert A. Gastaldo et al. (2005): Taphonomic Trends of Macrofloral Assemblages Across the Permian-Triassic Boundary, Karoo Basin, South Africa. PDF file, Palaios. See also here ("Tales of Extinction and Recovery", Smithsonian).

GASTALDO, Robert A., ADENDORFF, Rose, BAMFORD, Marion, LABANDEIRA, Conrad, NEVELING, Johann, and SIMS, Hallie: TAPHONOMIC TRENDS OF MACROFLORAL ASSEMBLAGES ACROSS THE PERMIAN-TRIASSIC BOUNDARY IN THE KAROO BASIN, SOUTH AFRICA. Abstract, 2004 Denver Annual Meeting (November 7-10, 2004).

The Geological Society of London, Geology News: Buckyballs to extinction, and Spaceballs! (April 13, 2000), and Just Bucky? How many coincidental double whammies can life (and we) take? (March 8, 2001). The extraterrestrial gases were found trapped inside buckyballs in the thin layer of clay that formed from the fallout of an asteroid impact.

A.V. Goman'kov (2005): Floral Changes across the Permian-Triassic Boundary. Abstract.

Anna Goodwin, Jon Wyles and Alex Morley, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol: The palaeofiles, The end-Permian mass extinction. Go to: What life was present, Vascular plants.

! Peter A. Hochuli et al. (2010): Rapid demise and recovery of plant ecosystems across the end-Permian extinction event. PDF file, Global and Planetary Change.

P.A. Hochuli et al. (2010): Multiple climatic changes around the Permian-Triassic boundary event revealed by an expanded palynological record from mid-Norway. Abstract, GSA Bulletin, 122: 884-896.

Christa-Ch. Hofmann, Institute of Palaeontology, University of Vienna: Pollen and spores tell nearly everything...- and often nothing. Abstract, The International Plant Taphonomy Meeting 2002, Bonn, Goldfuss Museum, Institute of Paleontology, Germany.

Hillel J. Hoffmann, National Geographic Magazine: The Permian Extinction. See also the National Geographic web version.

Raymond B. Huey and Peter D. Ward: Hypoxia, Global Warming, and Terrestrial Late Permian Extinctions. Science, Vol 308, Issue 5720, 398-401; 2005.

International Commission on Stratigraphy.

Yukio Isozaki (2009): Integrated "plume winter" scenario for the double-phased extinction during the Paleozoic-Mesozoic transition: The G-LB and P-TB events from a Panthalassan perspective. PDF file, Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 36: 459-480.

Yu Jianxin (2008): Floras and the evolutionary dynamics across the Permian-Triassic boundary nearby the border of Guizhou and Yunnan, South China. Abstract (PDF file).

! Kelber, K.-P. (2003): Sterben und Neubeginn im Spiegel der Paläofloren. PDF file (17 MB!), in German. Plant evolution, the fossil record of plants and the aftermath of mass extinction events. pp. 38-59, 212-215; In: Hansch, W. (ed.): Katastrophen in der Erdgeschichte - Wendezeiten des Lebens.- museo 19, Heilbronn.

Hans Kerp: Permian floras: where does it begin, where does it end? Abstract, Workshop on Permian - Triassic Paleobotany and Palynology, June 16-18, 2005; Natural Science Museum of South Tyrol, Bolzano, Italy.

Richard A. Kerr, Science magazine, April 2005: Gasping for Air in the Permian. Thin air may have forced animals down from higher latitudes 250 million years ago, crowding them into the lowlands and possibly helping along the largest extinction in the history of the planet, according to a study of Science. See also here.

Richard A. Kerr: Fossil Count Suggests Biggest Die-Off Wasn't Due to a Smashup. Science, Vol 307, Issue 5708: 335, 2005.

David L. Kidder and Thomas R. Worsley: Causes and consequences of extreme Permo-Triassic warming to globally equable climate and relation to the Permo-Triassic extinction and recovery. Abstract, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, Volume 203, Issues 3-4, (2004), Pages 207-237.

KIDDER, David L. and WORSLEY, Thomas R., Geological Sciences, Ohio Univ, Athens: DID THE END-PERMIAN EXTINCTION DELAY TRIASSIC RECOVERY BY AFFECTING THE EARTH SYSTEM? Abstract.

KIDDER, David L. and WORSLEY, Thomas R., Geological Sciences, Ohio Univ, Athens: Storms in the Late Permian and early Triassic. Abstract.

A.H. Knoll et al. (2007): Paleophysiology and end-Permian mass extinction. PDF file, Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 256: 295-313.

! H.W. Kozur, Budapest, Hungary: Problems for Evaluation of the Scenario of the Permian-Triassic Boundary Biotic Crisis and of Its Causes. Abstract, Geologia Croatica, 51/2, 135-162, Zagreb, 1998.

V.A. Krassilov and E.V. Karasev (2009): Paleofloristic evidence of climate change near and beyond the Permian-Triassic boundary. PDF file, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 284: 326-336.

E.S. Krull et al.: d¹³C_org chemostratigraphy of the Permian-Triassic boundary in the Maitai Group, New Zealand: evidence for high-latitudinal methane release. PDF file, New Zealand Journal of Geology & Geophysics, 2000, Vol. 43: 21-32.

Ronald J. Litwin, Robert E. Weems, and Thomas R. Holtz, U.S. Geological Survey, Denver (Maintained by Eastern Publications Group Web Team): Dinosaurs: Facts and Fiction.

C. V. Looy¹, W. A. Brugman¹, D. L. Dilcher², and H. Visscher¹. ¹Laboratory of Palaeobotany and Palynology, Utrecht University; ²Paleobotany Laboratory, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville: The delayed resurgence of equatorial forests after the Permian-Triassic ecologic crisis. PNAS Online, Vol. 96, Issue 24, 13857-13862, November 23, 1999.

S.G. Lucas, New Mexico Museum of Natural History, Albuquerque: END-TRIASSIC MASS EXTINCTION OR THE COMPILED CORRELATION EFFECT? Abstract.

! Jennifer C. McElwain and Surangi W. Punyasena (2007): Mass extinction events and the plant fossil record. PDF file, Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 22: 548-557. See also here (abstract).

Jennifer C. McElwain, UCD Earth Systems Institute, Dublin: Climate change and mass extinction: What can we learn from 200 million year old plants? PDF file.

T. McKie and P.M. Shannon (2011): Comment on "The Permian-Triassic transition and the onset of Mesozoic sedimentation at the northwestern peri Tethyan domain scale: Palaeogeographic maps and geodynamic implications" by S. Bourquin, A. Bercovici, J. López-Gómez, J. B. Diez, J. Broutin, A. Ronchi, M. Durand, A. Arché, B. Linol and F. Amour. [Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 299 (2011) 265–280]. Abstract.

I. Metcalfe and Y. Isozaki (2009): Current perspectives on the Permian-Triassic boundary and end-Permian mass extinction: Preface. In PDF, Journal of Asian Earth Sciences.

Per Michaelsen (2002): Mass extinction of peat-forming plants and the effect on fluvial styles across the Permian-Triassic boundary, northern Bowen Basin, Australia. PDF file, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 179: 173-188. Models of fluvial styles in fig. 7 (on PDF page 10).

Richard Monastersky, Science News, 1996 (website by Find Article): Global crisis: the fungi stand alone - mass extinction at the end of the Permian period.

George Monbiot, Dissident Voice (an internet newsletter): Shadow of Extinction - Only Six Degrees Separate Our World from the Cataclysmic End of an Ancient Era. " ... The goal of Dissident Voice is to provide hard hitting, thought provoking and even entertaining news and commentaries on politics and culture that can serve as ammunition in struggles for peace and social justice ..." !

Stephen A. Nelson, Department of Geology, Tulane University. New Orleans, LA: Natural Disasters, Meteorites, Impacts, and Mass Extinction.

A.J. Newell et al. (2010): Disruption of playa-lacustrine depositional systems at the Permo-Triassic boundary: evidence from Vyazniki and Gorokhovets on the Russian Platform. Journal of the Geological Society, London, 167: 695-716.

Jonathan L. Payne, Daniel J. Lehrmann, Jiayong Wei, Michael J. Orchard, Daniel P. Schrag, Andrew H. Knoll: Large Perturbations of the Carbon Cycle During Recovery from the End-Permian Extinction. Science, Vol 305, Issue 5683, 506-509, 23 July 2004.

PBS, Alexandria, Virginia (PBS is a private, non-profit media enterprise owned and operated by the US 349 public television stations): Evolution. This online course is intended to deepen the understanding of evolution with extensive content-rich materials, interactive exercises, primary source readings and in depth exploration of scientific concepts. Go to: Permian-Triassic Extinction. In this video segment geologist Peter Ward shows rock layers laid down during the Permian and Triassic periods.

Shanan E. Peters, University of Wisconsin-Madison: Sepkoski's Online Genus Database. The purpose of this database is to allow users to easily search and summarize Sepkoski's global genus compendium on the basis of Evolutionary Fauna, Phylum, or Class.

Hermann W. Pfefferkorn, Department of Earth and Environmental Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia: The complexity of mass extinction. Commentary, PNAS, August 31, 2004. vol. 101, no. 35, 12779-12780.

Hermann W. Pfefferkorn, Department of Earth and Environmental Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA: Commentary: Recuperation from Mass Extinctions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences v.96, i.24 23nov99.

A.G. Ponomarenko (2006): Changes in terrestrial biota before the Permian-Triassic ecological crisis. Abstract.

Poreda R.J. and Becker L.: Fullerenes and Interplanetary Dust at the Permian-Triassic Boundary. Astrobiology, 1 January 2003, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 75-90(16).

R. Prevec et al. (2009): Portrait of a Gondwanan ecosystem: A new late Permian fossil locality from KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Abstract, Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 156: 454-493. See also here (PDF file). ^

Michael R. Rampino (2010): Mass extinctions of life and catastrophic flood basalt volcanism. PDF file, PNAS, 107: 6555-6556. See also here.

! P. McAllister Rees (2002): Land-plant diversity and the end-Permian mass extinction. PDF file, Geology, 30: 827-830. See also here (abstract).

! Allister Rees, Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona, Tucson: Paleobiography Project. There are three databases, including a map-based search function, plotting on paleomaps, references search, genus name search for the dinosaurs and plants, and tutorial pages:
PGAP, the Paleogeographic Atlas Project Lithofacies Database. Mesozoic and Cenozoic Lithofacies.
CSS, the Climate Sensitive Sediments Database. Permian and Jurassic Climate Sensitive Sediments.
DINO, the Dinosauria Distributions Database. Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous Dinosaur Distributions.
Registration procedure required.

Allister Rees, Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona, Tucson: Permian Phytogeography and Climate Inference. Downloadable PowerPoint Presentation, Nonmarine Permian Symposium. 18 MB!

Gregory J. Retallack (1999): Postapocalyptic greenhouse paleoclimate revealed by earliest Triassic paleosols. PDF file, Geological Society of America Bulletin. See also here (abstract).

! Hans-Dieter Sues and Nicholas C. Fraser (2010): Triassic Life on Land: The Great Transition. Google books.

P. McAllister Rees, Alfred M. Ziegler, Mark T. Gibbs, John E. Kutzbach, Pat J. Behling, and David B. Rowley: Permian Phytogeographic Patterns and Climate Data/Model Comparisons. PDF file.

Rees, P.M., McGowan, Alistair J., & Ziegler, Alfred M.: PATTERNS OF GLOBAL PLANT DIVERSITY, GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE IN THE PERMIAN AND TRIASSIC.- Abstract, Summit 2000, 2000 GSA Annual Meeting, Reno, Nevada; The Geological Society of America (GSA).

Allister Rees, Fred Ziegler and David Rowley, University of Chicago: THE PALEOGEOGRAPHIC ATLAS PROJECT (PGAP). Including a Jurassic and Permian slideshow sampler (QuickTime), paleogeographic maps (downloadable pdf files), and a bibliography of PGAP Publications (with links to abstracts).

Allister Rees, Department of the Geophysical Sciences, University of Chicago: Middle Permian (Wordian) Floras.

! Gregory J. Retallack et al.: Multiple Early Triassic greenhouse crises impeded recovery from Late Permian mass extinction. Abstract, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology.

G.J. Retallack and A.H. Jahren (2008): Methane release from igneous intrusion of coal during Late Permian extinction events. PDF file, Journal of Geology, 116: 1-20.

G.J. Retallack et al. (2006): Middle-Late Permian mass extinction on land. PDF file, GSA Bulletin, 118: 1398-1411.

G.J. Retallack (2005): Permian greenhouse crises. PDF file, in: Lucas, S.G. and Zeigler, K.E. (eds.): The Nonmarine Permian, New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin No. 30.

RETALLACK, Gregory J., Department of Geological Sciences, Univ of Oregon, Eugene, OR, SMITH, Roger M.H., Department of Earth Sciences, South African Museum, Cape Town, South Africa, and WARD, Peter D., Department of Geological Sciences, Univ. of Washington, Seattle, WA: PALEOSOL AND VERTEBRATE EXTINCTION ACROSS THE PERMIAN-TRIASSIC BOUNDARY IN THE KAROO BASIN, SOUTH AFRICA. Abstract, Geological Society of America: GSA Annual Meeting, October 27-30, 2002, Denver, CO.

Gregory J. Retallack et al. (1996): Global coal gap between Permian-Triassic extinction and Middle Triassic recovery of peat-forming plants. Abstract, Geological Society of America Bulletin, 108: 195-207.

G. J. Retallack (1995): Permian-Triassic Life Crisis on Land. Abstract, Science, 267: 77-80.

! Mark Ridley, The Times Literary Supplement, No. 5238, August 22, 2003, page 28: Clues to catastrophe. Book review.

Peter D. Roopnarine et al. (2007): Trophic network models explain instability of Early Triassic terrestrial communities. PDF file, Proc. R. Soc. B, 274: 2077-2086. See also here.

Ronny Rößler (John Wiley & Sons, Inc.): Das Perm - Farnwälder, Glutwolken und Salzwüsten. In German. Full article available here (PDF file).

Sarda Sahney and Michael J Benton (2008): Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time. Proc. R. Soc. B, 275: 759-765. See also here (PDF file).

! Mark A. Saunders and M. Reichow (2009): The Siberian Traps and the End-Permian mass extinction: a critical review. PDF file, Chinese Science Bulletin, 54: 20-37.

Steve Self, Hawaii Center for Volcanology, University of Hawaii, and Mike Rampino, Earth and Environmental Science Program, New York University (The Geological Society of London): FLOOD BASALTS, MANTLE PLUMES and MASS EXTINCTIONS.

Megan Sever, Geotimes, Highlights 2005; Paleontology: The "Great Dying" debate.

D.E. Shcherbakov (2008): On Permian and Triassic Insect Faunas in Relation to Biogeography and the Permian–Triassic Crisis. PDF file, Paleontological Journal, 42: 15-31.

D.E. Shcherbakov, Paleontological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia: Permian Faunas of Homoptera (Hemiptera) in Relation to Phytogeography and the Permo-Triassic Crisis. Paleontological Journal, Vol. 34, Suppl. 3, 2000, pp. S251-S267.

! Shu-zhong Shen et al. (2011): Calibrating the End-Permian Mass Extinction. Abstract.

Wenjie Shen et al. (2011): Evidence for wildfire in the Meishan section and implications for Permian-Triassic events. PDF file, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 75: 1992-2006.

A.K. Srivastava and D. Agnihotri (2010): Dilemma of late Palaeozoic mixed floras in Gondwana. PDF file, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology.

STEINER, Maureen B., ESHET, Yoram, RAMPINO, Michael, and SCHWINDT, Dylan M.: SIMULTANEOUS PERMO-TRIASSIC BOUNDARY MARINE AND TERRESTRIAL MASS EXTINCTIONS: THE GLOBAL FUNGAL SPIKE DISCOVERED IN THE KAROO SUPERGROUP (SOUTH AFRICA). Abstract, GSA Annual Meeting, Boston, November 5-8, 2001.

Richard J. Twitchett (2007): Lilliput effect in the aftermath of the end-Permian extinction event. In PDF, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 252: 132-144.

! Vivi Vajda and Stephen McLoughlin (2007): Extinction and recovery patterns of the vegetation across the Cretaceous-Palaeogene boundary - a tool for unravelling the causes of the end-Permian mass-extinction. PDF file, Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 144: 99-112.

Han van Konijnenburg-van Cittert et al.: Vegetation successsion through the end-Permian ecologic crisis. (Powerpoint presentatation). See also here. Abstract, Workshop on Permian - Triassic Paleobotany and Palynology, June 16-18, 2005; Natural Science Museum of South Tyrol, Bolzano, Italy.

C. Virgili (2008): The Permian-Triassic transition: Historical review of the most important ecological crises with special emphasis on the Iberian Peninsula and Western-Central Europe. PDF file, Journal of Iberian Geology, 34: 123-158.

Henk Visscher et al. (2011): Fungal virulence at the time of the end-Permian biosphere crisis? Abstract, Geology, 39. See also:
Fungi helped destroy forests during mass extinction 250 million years ago. By Robert Sanders, UC Berkely News Center, August 5, 2011.
Forest-killing fungi could multiply in a warming world. By Bob Berwyn, August 8, 2011.

! H.C. Visscher, C.V. Looy, M.E. Collinson, H. Brinkhuis, J.H.A. van Konijnenburg-van Cittert, W.M. Kürschner, & M.A. Sephton, (2004): Environmental Mutagenesis during the End-Permian Ecological Crisis. PDF file, Proceedings National Academy of Sciences USA.

H. Visscher et al. (1996): The terminal Paleozoic fungal event: Evidence of terrestrial ecosystem destabilization and collapse. PDF file, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 93: 2155-2158.

P.D. Ward (2006): Impact from the Deep. Scientific American.

Peter D. Ward et al.: Abrupt and Gradual Extinction Among Late Permian Land Vertebrates in the Karoo Basin, South Africa. Abstract, Science, Vol 307, Issue 5710: 709-714, 2005.

David Whitehouse, BBC News: Asteroid destroyed life 250m years ago. Researchers believe that particular fullerenes are extraterrestrial because the gases trapped inside have an unusual ratio of isotopes that indicate they were made in the atmosphere of a star that exploded before our Sun was born.

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:
! Permian-Triassic extinction event.
Extinction event.
Category:Extinction events.

WordIQ.com: Definition of Fullerene.

Laura Wright, Geotimes: P/T extinction explained.

! Wikipedia the free encyclopedia: Permian-Triassic extinction event.

Conghui Xiong and Qi Wang (2011): Permian-Triassic land-plant diversity in South China: Was there a mass extinction at the Permian/Triassic boundary? PDF file, Paleobiology, 37: 157-167.

! Hongfu Yin et al. (2007): The protracted Permo-Triassic crisis and multi-episode extinction around the Permian-Triassic boundary. PDF file, Global and Planetary Change, 55: 1-20.

M.A. Zharkov and N.M. Chumakov, Geological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia: Paleogeography and Sedimentation Settings during Permian-Triassic Reorganizations in Biosphere (PDF file). Stratigraphy and Geological Correlation, Vol. 9, No. 4, 2001, pp. 340-363. Translated from Stratigrafiya. Geologicheskaya Korrelyatsiya, Vol. 9, No. 4, 2001, pp. 29-54.

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